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Frame Relay Overview

In preparation of our CCNA exam, we want to make sure we cover the various concepts that we could see on our Cisco CCNA exam. So to assist you, below we will discuss Frame Relay Overview.

Frame Relay is a connection-oriented Layer 2 protocol that allows several data connections(called virtual circuits) to be multiplexed onto a single physical link. Frame Relay relies on upper-layer protocols for error correction. Frame Relay specifies only the connection between a router and a service provider’s local access switching equipment. The data transmission within the service provider’s Frame Relay cloud is not specified. A connection identifier is used to map packets to outbound ports on the service provider’s switch. When the switch receives a frame, a lookup table is used to map the frame to the correct outbound port. The entire path to the destination is determined before the frame is sent.

Frame Relay Stack

Most Frame Relay functions exist at the lower two layers of the OSI Reference Model. Frame Relay is supported on the same physical serial connections that support point-to-point connections. Cisco routers support the following serial connections: EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, V.35, X.21, EIA/TIA-530. Upper-layer information (such as IP data) is encapsulated by Frame Relay and is transmitted over the link.

Frame Relay Terms

BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification)-A message sent to a source router when a Frame Relay switch recognizes congestion in the network. A BECN message requests a reduced data transmission rate.

CIR (Committed Information Rate)-The minimum guaranteed data transfer rate agreed to by the Frame Relay switch.

DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier)-Identifies the logical circuit between the router and the Frame Relay switch.

FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification)-A message sent to a destination device when a Frame Relay switch senses congestion in the network.

Inverse ARP-Routers use Inverse ARP to discover the network address of a device associated with a VC.

LMI (Local Management Interface)-A signaling standard used to manage the connection between the router and the Frame Relay switch. LMIs track and manage keepalive mechanisms, multicast messages, and status. LMI can be configured (in Cisco IOS 11.2 and later), but routers can autosense LMI types by sending a status request to the Frame Relay switch. The router configures itself to match the LMI type response. The three types of LMIs supported by Cisco Frame Relay switches are Cisco (developed by Cisco, StrataCom, Northern Telecom, and DEC), ansi Annex D (ANSI standard T1.617), and q933a (ITU-T Q.933 Annex A).

VC (virtual circuit)-A logical circuit between two network devices. A VC can be permanent (PVC) or switched (SVC). PVCs save bandwidth (there is no circuit establishment or teardown) but can be expensive. SVCs are established on-demand and are torn down when transmission is complete. VC status can be active, inactive, or deleted.

Dynamic Mapping with Inverse ARP

To correctly route packets, each DLCI must be mapped to a nexthop address. These addresses can be dynamically mapped using Inverse ARP or can be manually configured. After the address is mapped, it is stored in the router’s Frame Relay map table.

LMI Signaling Process 1 The router connects to a Frame Relay switch through a channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU). 2 The router sends a VC status inquiry to the Frame Relay switch. 3 The switch responds with a status message that includes the DLCI’s information for the usable PVCs. 4 The router advertises itself by sending an Inverse ARP to each active DLCI. 5 The routers create map entries with the local DLCI and network-layer address of the remote routers. Static maps must be configured if Inverse ARP is not supported. 6 Inverse ARP messages are sent every 60 seconds. 7 LMI information is exchanged every 10 seconds.

Frame Relay Overview Summary

Frame Relay is a connection-oriented Layer 2 protocol that allows several data connections (VCs) to be multiplexed onto a single physical link.

Cisco routers support Frame Relay on the following types of serial connections: EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, V.35, X.21, and EIA/TIA-530.

Local DLCI addresses can be dynamically mapped using Inverse ARP or manually configured using static Frame Relay maps.

Local Management Interface (LMI) signaling is used by Frame Relay switches to manage connections and maintain status between the devices. The supported LMI types are cisco, ansi, and q933a.

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The salaries of Plumbers are often talked about in the national press. Salaries of 30-70k p.a. are often discussed, along with the lack of plumbers within the UK. So, is this really the position or is this basically untrue? To be certain, for the correctly qualified and experienced plumber, this level of salary is achievable and indeed attainable. Whilst salaries of 70-100k p.a. are possible, it remains chiefly for self employed people, rather than those working in the customary routes.

If you enter the traditional work environment, primarily working for an established employer, then working hours of Monday to Friday, 9am to 6pm are standard. Indeed salaries of between 15k and 30k p.a. form part of what is expected from employed status in this area, along with the added reward of holiday pay and sickness allowance. However, if the self employed person is willing to work longer than the normal working hours then more money can be earned. For example in the domestic sector where clients are often at work during the working day, self employed plumbers are regularly required to work during evening and weekend visits.

Also there is the factor of self-employment and whether it goes with some people more than others. The inclusion of key elements such as utilising good ‘business sense’, covering areas such as advertising and marketing and getting your own cost-per-hour correct is integral to the picture. To be fair most self-employed people will have to prepare for additional costs including those relating to legal and accountancy fees as well as those of transport and material usage. While these costs can mount up, so too do the benefits, however the costs should always remain a smaller part of the income generated. And the positives virtually always beat the downsides!

Often customary work from employers attracts Student Entrants especially if it meets their needs training in working knowledge and experience. Equally the Self Employed Entrant needs to increase their list of qualifications within a reasonable time frame. That noted the main drive of self-employed workers is towards the ‘domestic’ market and not that of the commercial sector. (Well the majority do at least)

The certification units, needed by each part of the industry keeps a similarity in terms of Plumbing education. A key debate however comes into play when considering the issue of NVQ’s (SVQ’s in Scotland.)

Without a doubt, it is the greater dependence on the NVQ element that separates the Student Entrant from the Self Employed Entrant. In order to meet their client’s expectations the Self Employed Entrant will often need to use a greater range of certifications. The self employed person needs to consider the wishes of their household clients and use the relative domestic-centred qualifications to satisfy them. It is within the workplace - where the NVQ element can be appraised that many Student Entrants carry on with their apprenticeship after having covered the key fundamentals through a college scheme. Due to the cost effectiveness of this study the Student Entrant can make strong savings from the outset. It is fair to say that long before the Student Entrant the Self Employed Entrant can gain financial benefits through establishing certifications faster and by being more commercially motivated.

Clearly this illustrates the need for a careers discussion that covers certifications and study alongside those of financial returns. It is extremely difficult for adults with a family to look after and needing 20kp.a. to consider going back to college and spending 3 years on low paid-apprenticeship work. Equally, many self-employed students fund the courses themselves whereas the Student Entrants often have their studies paid for them as part of their overall apprenticeships. The level of certification sought by the student drives the course structure and can result in costs of between 3k through to 10k+.

Whilst the Self Employed Entrant can consider a wider range of education forms including private colleges the Student Entrant is limited to known further-education colleges. Commercially oriented plumbing course companies will provide an established path of training which ultimately leads into recognised skill-sets and qualifications. In the current climate the ability of Self Employed Entrants to maintain their current financial situation and job, whilst at the same time as training in the evening, part-time or on self study classes remains one of the advantages of this system. From this it makes sense to gather as much detail as you can especially with so many training options available. Why not book mark this page (CTRL-D) and then you can come back and review your options from the links and adverts we have provided for you.

To increase their ‘marketability’ many plumbing students will go on to utilise extra courses. Courses in areas such as Gas, Electrical and Green Energy can provide added certifications. A typically popular route for Plumbers is Gas training, especially as this forms part of the usual commercial and domestic heating system.

Without a doubt, NVQ’s that follow on core subjects lead into the careful and precise program that is Gas Training. The opportunity for on-going training is for those who trained first as a plumber and are now seeking to add some extra skills to their repertoire. It is from this position that many believe the mix of Plumbing/Gas Training is more apt to the mature student. By reducing the NVQ parts the Mature Student appears to be able to allow the focus on the core subjects.

It is from this particular training program that the self-employed professional gains ground. The attraction is certainly the chance to gain a wider range of skill sets and earn money from them. This adds to their overall package rather than having to rely on sub-contraction of key skills to third parties. Having to wait for critical phases to be completed by sub-contractors can not only reduce the earning potential of each job but can also negatively affect a customer’s perception of a job value overall. To have a higher value within their client base a Plumber needs to consider their relative skill sets that they offer.

In retrospect, the Self Employed Entrant has the potential to achieve a much higher and more readily available income stream than Student Entrant, but to do so they need to develop both their business skills and achieve a broader range of certifications. Note: This information relates to the UK market, policies and industry requirements alone.

Written by Scott Edwards. Hop over to Click HERE or City & Guilds Plumbing Courses.

The salaries of Plumbers are often talked about in the national press. The lack of Plumbers in the UK has led to salaries of 30-70k p.a. being exhibited. So, is this really the position or is this basically untrue? Certainly this level of payment is both possible and achievable for the correctly qualified Plumber. To be fair, the higher earnings of 70-100k p.a. are generally for those working within the self-employed field.

It is fairly usual to expect working hours of 9am to 6pm, Monday to Friday with a reputable employer. Normal remuneration such as holiday pay and sickness allowance, along with wages of between 15k and 30K p.a., are usual from UK companies in this area. By working ‘out of hours’ - typically longer than 9am to 6pm Mon- Fri the self employed person can often achieve a higher wage. This is more noticeable when the self employed plumber chooses to work in the domestic market, as result often requiring many evening and weekend visits to suit their clients.

Around which is the question of self employment which appears to fit some people. The inclusion of key elements such as utilising good ‘business sense’, covering areas such as advertising and marketing and getting your own cost-per-hour correct is integral to the picture. Furthermore, additional costs such as materials and transport, along with legal and accountancy fees will need to be paid. While these can mount up, (although they should always be a very small proportion of your earnings,) so can the benefits received. Certainly the downsides are virtually always beaten by the income!

Often customary work from employers attracts Student Entrants especially if it meets their needs training in working knowledge and experience. The Self Employed Entrant on the other hand will need to widen their list of plumbing accreditations and certifications as quickly as possible. That said the vast majority of self-employed plumbers appear to favour the ‘domestic’ instead of the commercial market. (Not all of them, but the main do!)

Considering the education in Plumbing, each path into the industry needs some match in the certification modules. It is when the issue of NVQ’s (SVQ’s in Scotland) is considered that a considerable discrepancy becomes clear.

To begin with, the Student Entrant appears to rely more heavily on the NVQ structure than the Self Employed Entrant. In order to meet their client’s expectations the Self Employed Entrant will often need to use a greater range of certifications. Certainly, the self-employed person needs to rapidly gain the key domestic-centred qualifications that will satisfy their typical household-based clients. The Student Entrant, once they have covered the key fundamentals, will carry on their study in a way similar to an apprenticeship (within the workplace - where the NVQ element can be assessed.) Considerable savings potential exists to the Student Entrant by taking on this cheaper form of study. It is fair to say that long before the Student Entrant the Self Employed Entrant can gain financial benefits through establishing certifications faster and by being more commercially motivated.

It is by covering the study needs along with those of a clear careers discussion that meet the financial rewards. It is often the issue of spending time at college and then having to go back to an apprenticeship for up to 3 years that proves difficult to many adults especially those that have a family to look after. It is by having their courses paid for them that many Student Entrants can submit to the courses, simply put the more mature self-employed students have to pay for their education themselves. For self-employed people these costs are set by the course structure and the level of certification sought and can end up between 3k-10k+.

For the most part the private colleges are the domain of the Self Employed Entrant whereas the Student Entrant is required to study at recognised further-education colleges. It is the lead into familiar skill-sets and qualifications that commercially fixed plumbing course companies offer as part of their training paths. The situation whereby Self Employed Entrants can continue with their current job and maintain their financial position remains one of the core advantages of training in evening, part-time or self study classes. From this it makes sense to gather as much detail as you can especially with so many training options available. Why not book mark this page (CTRL-D) and then you can come back and review your options from the links and adverts we have provided for you.

Plumbers ‘marketability’ is often increased through the use of additional courses. Key certificates in areas such as Gas, Green Energy and Electrical training can be provided by these courses. A popular route for Plumbers involves that of the normal domestic and commercial heating system training program of Gas Training.

With core subjects followed by NVQ’s, Gas Training is a thorough and exact training program. For those who trained as a plumber first and are now looking at extra skills this also offers many options for their on-going development. In review it is often felt that the mature student responds well to the blend of Gas/Plumbing training. The path of focussing on the core subjects and at the same time dropping the NVQ’s seems to favour the Mature Student.

The self-employed professional appears to benefit from this distinct training mixture. The opportunity to learn a wider range of perceived skill-sets (whilst earning money from them) becomes the attraction. The removal of any reliance of sub-contracting key skills of third parties definitely enhances the commercial package. Of concern is the reduction in customer’s value as they have to wait for jobs to be completed by others that in turn can lead to a reduction of the earning potential of a job. The higher the skill level of a Plumber the more that they can offer their client base.

In conclusion, the Self Employed Entrant can enjoy a much higher (and more quickly achieved) income than a Student Entrant, but they would have to work at developing a broader range of certifications (and consider the business side of things too.) Note: The above information is solely relative to the UK market, industry requirements and policies.

(C) 2009 Scott Edwards. Look at Part Time Plumbing Courses or Plumbing Courses.

There is a particular game that has entertained millions of people for many, many years. No one knows for sure when or where it originated, but one thing is sure: bingo has not lost popularity over the years. On the contrary, it has gone from strength to strength, shaking off its image as a game for the older generations and restyling itself as a billion dollar online industry. People have loved it for the chance it provides to relax with good friends in a social atmosphere. Now, the game has gone to the web and socializing is done through international chat rooms. Online bingo - why so popular? Let’s take a look at some reasons.

What is bingo?

Bingo players start with a ticket that has a collection of numbers, between one and a hundred. Up the front of the room is a large barrel or sack filled with numbered balls. These contain all of the numbers up to 100 and are all jumbled up together. One of these balls is selected at a time, and the number on it is read out. The players all check their tickets, and if they have that number written on their ticket, they mark it off with a special pen called a “dabber” or a “dauber.” The aim is to get five numbers all in a line, then say “Bingo!” or something similar to make yourself head. The first person to do this is the winner of that game. Technology has meant that instead of balls, bingo halls can use what’s known as a Random Number Generator, which is a small electronic device that comes up with the numbers. The online games are completely virtual.

Why do people play online?

People today are playing online for all different reasons. A big one is that online games are available constantly. Bingo halls only operate at certain times or days of the week, and busy people may have difficulty finding time to drive out to a bingo hall amongst work and family commitments. Some people are a bit introverted and prefer chatting online rather than meeting people face to face, and others feel most comfortable playing from within their own home.

Public smoking bans in more and more countries across the world have encouraged the growth of online participation in bingo, as most bingo players smoke regularly.

What are some of the benefits of online games?

For starters there are literally hundreds of websites out there to choose from, so you are almost guaranteed to find a site that you like. Also, the chat rooms on these web sites pose a fantastic opportunity to meet people from all over the world. Most players are from the UK, or from the US, Canada and Sweden. However, you might meet someone from Australia, Europe or Asia, or somewhere else too.

Now you can participate in super free bingo games, at any time of the day or night, right in your own home! Playing online bingo is a super way to enjoy the game you love whenever you want!